121. The theme of strength in weakness was developed by Furet, Passe.
36 Orwell, Homage, 145-149, at 149. See also Furet, Passe, 296, 301, 306; and Haslam, Collective Security, 133.
37 56,209 is the number of executions remaining after the subtraction: of those in the national actions (see next chapter) and the kulak action from the total 681,692 executions carried out in the Great Terror of 1937–1938. I provide a general figure because slightly different totals for the kulak action circulate; see Jansen, Executioner, 75. On the Red Army generals, see Wieczorkiewicz, Lancuch, 296. This is a fundamental work on the military purges.
38 Evans, Power, 21-22.
39 Ibid., 34, 39; Shore, Information, 31, 37.
40 On Himmler’s rise, see Longerich, Himmler. On the police structures, see Westermann, “Ideological Soldiers,” 45. I am simplifying the situation considerably by not discussing the federal structure of the German state. This, too, was seen by Himmler as a problem to be overcome. The police institutions noted here will be discussed further in Chapters 5, 6, and 7.
41 Evans, Power, 627; Lee, Dictatorships, 172.
42 These killing actions by German police are the subjects of Chapters 6 and 7.
43 Compare Wheatcroft, “Mass Killing,” 139.
44 Quotations: Baberowski, Feind, 758-759.
45 Werth, Terreur, 280; Viola, Forgotten Gulag, 195.
46 On religious faith, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 124; and Binner, “S etoj,” 181-183.
47 Shearer, “Social Disorder,” 527-531, quotation at 531.
48 On the Siberian Terror, see Ablazej, “Die ROVS-Operation,” 287-298; Baberowski, Terror, 189–190; and Kuromiya, “Accounting,” 93.
49 Binner, “Massenmord,” 561-562; Werth, Terreur, 283. On “an extra thousand,” Jansen, Executioner, 82, 87.
50 For “once and for all,” see Binner, “Massenmord,” 565, also 567. For the cited numbers, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 93.
51 Vashlin, Terror, 38. For “better too far … ,” see Baberowski, Terror, 192.
52 Binner, “Massenmord,” 565-568.
53 Ibid., 567.
54 Ibid., 568. On the latrine incident, see Michniuk, “Przeciwko Polakom,” 118. See also Weissberg, Wielka czystka, 293. For the signing of blank pages, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 127.
55 Binner, “Massenmord,” 571-577. Sometimes Stalin’s orders were very local and precise; for examples, see Kuz’niatsou, Kanveer, 72-73. Some 1,825 prisoners of Solovki would eventually be shot.
56 On Omsk, see Binner, “Massenmord,” 657-580. On the sentencing of 1,301 people in a single night, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 129. See also Khlevniuk, Gulag, 150.
57 For quotation and details on the execution techniques, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 130, 131; and Schlogel, Terror, 602, 618. On the explosives, see Gregory, Terror, 71.
58 On the shooting of 35,454 people, see Junge, Vertikal’, 201. On the remaining numbers, see Binner, “S etoj,” 207. On the camps, see Werth, Terreur, 285; and Khlevniuk, Gulag, 332. On the elderly, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 99. On the shooting of thirty-five deaf and dumb people,” see Schlogel, Terror, 624; McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 136; and Binner, “Massenmord,” 590.
59 On the events of December and February, see Nikol’skij, “Kulakenoperation,” 623; and Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 100. On Leplevskii’s interpretations of the categories of Order 00447, see Sapoval, “Behandlung,” 339, 341. On the arrests of 40,530 people, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 153. On the 23,650 people added to the death quota, see Sapoval, “Behandlung,” 343. For the figures 70,868 and 35,563 and 830, see Junge, Vertikal’ , 533. For the figures 1,102 and 1,226, see Nikol’skij, “Kulakenoperation,” 634- 635.
60 Stronski, Represje, 243. For discussion, see Weiner, Making Sense.
61 Pasternak made this general point in Dr. Zhivago.
62 Gurianov, “Obzor,” 202.
63 Goeschel, Concentration Camps, 26-27. Perhaps 5,000-15,000 people were sent to concentration camps for homosexuality, of whom perhaps half died by the end of the Second World War; see Evans, Third Reich at War, 535.
64 Goeschel, Concentration Camps, 4, 20, 21, 27; Evans, Power, 87. The argument about the swinging pendulum of nationality policy is powerfully formulated by Martin in Affirmative Action Empire.
65 On the 267 sentences in Nazi Germany, see Evans, Power, 69-70.
CHAPTER 3: NATIONAL TERROR
1 Martin, “Origins,” brings analytical rigor to the national operations. Quotation: Jansen, Executioner, 96; see also Baberowski, Terror, 198.
2 For greater detail on the Polish line, see Snyder, Sketches, 115-132.
3 Snyder, Sketches, 115-116. The “Polish Military Organization” idea seems to have originated in 1929, when a Soviet agent was placed in charge of the security commission of the Communist Party of Poland; see Stronski, Represje, 210.
4 Stronski, Represje, 211-213. On Sochacki, see Kieszczynski, “Represje,” 202. For further details on Wandurski, see Shore, Caviar and Ashes. At least one important Polish communist did return from the Soviet Union and work for the Poles: his book is Regula, Historia.
5 On January 1934, see Stronski, Represje, 226-227. For the motives and numbers of later deportations, see Kupczak, Polacy, 324.
6 On the first cue, see Kuromiya, Voices, 221. For “know everything,” see Stronski, Represje, 2336-227. See also Morris, “Polish Terror,” 756-757.
7 Stronski, Represje, 227; Snyder, Sketches, 119- 120.
8 Nikol’s’kyi, Represyvna, 337; Stronski, Represje, 227. For details on Balyts’kyi, see Shapoval, “Balyts’kyi,” 69-74. A similar fate awaited Stanislaw Kosior, the former head of the Ukrainian section of the party, who was Polish. He too had played a major role in the starvation campaign of 1933, and he too was executed as a Polish spy.
9 For further discussion of the origins of the Polish operation, see Rubl’ov “Represii proty poliakiv,” 126; Paczkowski, “Pologne,” 400; and Stronski, Represje, 220.
10 For the text of Order 00485 see Leningradskii martirolog, 454-456.
11 For some further examples, see Gilmore, Defying Dixie.
12 Petrov, “Polish Operation,” 154; Nikol’s’kyi, Represyvna, 105. Figures on representatives of national minorities are given later in the chapter.
13 On the “suppliers,” see Kuromiya, Stalin, 118. On the Polish diplomats, see Snyder, Sketches, 121-127. For the date on the central committee, see Kieszczynski,
