Primate Sociality,” Biotropica 8:12—24. See also Birkhead, T. R., and A. P. Moller (1992) Sperm Competition in Birds: Evolutionary Causes and Consequences, p. 194 (London: Academic Press); Eberhard, Female Control, p. 111.
98
Watson, L. (1981) Sea Guide to Whales of the World, p. 174 (New York: E.P. Dutton).
99
For further discussion, see Peterson 1968, Gentry 1981 (Northern Fur Seal); Smith 1976:71 (Musk-ox).
100
Lee and Cockburn 1985:87—90, 163—70 (Carnivorous Marsupials).
101
Birkhead, T. R., and A. P. Moller (1993) “Sexual Selection and the Temporal Separation of Reproductive Events: Sperm Storage Data from Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals,” Biological Journal of the Linnaean Society 50:295-311; Birkhead and Moller, Sperm Competition in Birds; Shugart, G. W. (1988) “Uterovaginal Sperm-storage Glands in Sixteen Species with Comments on Morphological Differences,” Auk 105:379—84; Stewart, G. R. (1972) “An Unusual Record of Sperm Storage in a Female Garter Snake (Genus Thamnophis),” Herpetologica 28:346-47; Racey, P. A. (1979) “The Prolonged Storage and Survival of Spermatozoa in Chiroptera,” Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 56:391-96; Baker and Bellis, Human Sperm Competition, pp. 42—43; Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 50—61, 167— 69.
102
Sandell, M. (1990) “The Evolution of Seasonal Delayed Implantation,” Quarterly Review of Biology 65:23—42; York and Scheffer 1997:680 (Northern Fur Seal); Renfree, M. B., and J. H. Calaby (1981) “Background to Delayed Implantation and Embryonic Diapause,” in A. P. F. Flint, M. B. Renfree, and B. J. Weir, eds., Embryonic Diapause in Mammals, Journal of Reproduction and Fertility, supplement no. 29:1-9; Riedman, M. (1990) The Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses, pp. 224-25 (Berkeley: University of California Press).
103
Greylag Goose (Lorenz 1979:74).
104
Francis, C. M., E. L. P. Anthony, J. A. Brunton, and T. H. Kunz (1994) “Lactation in Male Fruit Bats,” Nature 367:691-92.
105
McVean, G., and L. D. Hurst (1996) “Genetic Conflicts and the Paradox of Sex Determination: Three Paths to the Evolution of Female Intersexuality in a Mammal,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 179:199-211; King, A. S. (1981) “Phallus,” in A. S. King and J. McLelland, eds., Form and Function in Birds, vol. 2, pp. 107—47 (London: Academic Press).
106
Walrus (Fay 1982:39—40); Layne, J.N. (1954) “The Os Clitoridis of Some North American Sciuridae,” Journal of Mammalogy 35:357-66; Bray, K. (1996) “Size Is Nothing at All: Female Fish Has Novel Way to Adapt to Mate’s Lack of Penis,” BBC Wildlife 14(11):15.
107
Chaffinch (Marler 1956:113—14, 163 [table XI]); African jacana (Jenni, D. A. [1996] “Jacanidae [jacanas],” p. 282, in J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal, eds., Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks, pp. 276—91 [Barcelona: Lynx Edicions]). For further examples and statistics on the widespread occurrence of matings that “fail” to result in insemination, see Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 399—403.
108
For a general survey of mating harassment in primates, see Niemeyer, C. L., and J.R. Anderson (1983) “Primate Harassment of Matings,” Ethology and Sociobiology 4:205-20.
109
Asiatic Elephant (Eisenberg et al. 1971:205). For specific examples of male and female genitalia that do not “fit,” see Eberhard, W. G. (1985) Sexual Selection and Animal Genitalia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press). On the hostility of the female’s reproductive tract to sperm, see Birkhead, T. R., A. P. Moller, and W. J. Sutherland (1993) “Why Do Females Make It So Difficult for Males to Fertilize Their Eggs?” Journal of Theoretical Biology 161:51-60; Birkhead, T., and A. Moller (1993) “Female Control of Paternity,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 8:100-104; Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 331—49.
110
Musk-ox (Smith 1976:54—55).
111
Clutton-Brock, T. H., and G. A. Parker (1995) “Sexual Coercion in Animal Societies,” Animal Behavior 49:1345-65; Smuts, B. B., and R. W. Smuts (1993) “Male Aggression and Sexual Coercion of Females in Nonhuman Primates and Other Mammals: Evidence and Theoretical Implications,” Advances in the Study of Behavior 22:1-63; Palmer, C. T. (1989) “Rape in Nonhuman Animal Species: Definitions, Evidence, and Implications,” Journal of Sex Research 26:355 -74; McKinney et al. 1983 (Ducks).
112
For further examples and references, see Le Boeuf and Mesnick 1991 (Northern Elephant Seal); Miller et al. 1996 (Northern Fur Seal).
113
Pronghorn (Geist 1990:283).
114
Besides mating during the nonbreeding season or during menstruation or pregnancy, many female mammals also copulate during anovulatory cycles, that is, menstrual cycles during which ovulation has not taken place (Baker and Bellis, Human Sperm Competition, pp. 69-70; Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 133-39).
115
Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 3—5, 202.
116
Birkhead et al., “Why Do Females Make It So Difficult for Males to Fertilize Their Eggs?” p. 52; Birkhead and Moller, “Female Control of Paternity,” p. 101; Ginsberg, J. R., and U. W. Huck (1989) “Sperm Competition in Mammals,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 4:74-79; Eberhard, Female Control, pp. 81-94.
117
Rodents (Voss, R. S. [1979] “Male Accessory Glands and the Evolution of Copulatory Plugs in Rodents,” Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan 689:1—27; Baumgardner, D. J., T. G. Hartung, D. K. Sawrey, D. G. Webster, and D. A. Dewsbury [1982] “Muroid Copulatory Plugs and Female Reproductive Tracts: A Comparative Investigation,” Journal of Mammalogy 63:110-17); Squirrel Monkey (Srivastava et al. 1970:129-30); Hedgehogs (Reeve 1994:178; Deansley, R. [1934] “The Reproductive Processes of Certain Mammals. VI. The Reproductive Cycle of the Female Hedgehog,” especially p. 267, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 223:239-76); lemurs and other prosimians (Dixson, A. E [1995] “Sexual Selection and the Evolution of Copulatory Behavior in Nocturnal Prosimians,” in L. Alterman, G. A. Doyle, and M. K. Izard, eds., Creatures of the Dark: The Nocturnal Prosimians, pp. 93-118 [New York: Plenum Press]); Dolphins (Harrison, R. J. [1969] “Reproduction and Reproductive Organs, p. 272, in H. T. Andersen, ed., The Biology of Marine Mammals, pp. 253-348 [New York and London: Academic Press]); on “chastity plugs” in Bats, see Fenton, M. B. (1984) “Sperm Competition? The Case of Vespertilionid and
