The Penguin History of Modern Russia

capital goods: in post-World War II economy, 303–4, 329; under Khrushchev, 352, 373

capitalism: Bolsheviks oppose, 62; and industrial syndicates, 95–6; state, 97; under NEP, 144; communist belief in collapse of, 178, 254; post-World War II, 294; Stalin’s views on global, 322–3; Khrushchev criticizes, 356, 362; and Gorbachev’s market economy, 385–6; adapts to welfare economics, 398; Gorbachev recognizes success of, 437; under Yeltsin and subsequently, 469, 514, 533–6, 539–42, 550–1, 553–4, 558, 562–3, 573

Carter, Jimmy, 411

Caspian Sea: pollution, 468

Castro, Fidel, 352, 374

Caucasus: national aspirations, 40; kulaks deported, 195; see also Transcaucasus

Ceausescu, Nicolae, 483–4

censorship, 94, 324, 366, 380–81; see also samizdat

Central Asia, 84, 86

Central Control Commission, 118, 148, 176

Central Intelligence Agency (United States), 341

Central State Bank, 452

centralization, political, 98, 110–11, 115–17, 129, 169, 452, 521

cereals see grain

Chagall, Marc, 94, 139

Chaikovski, Petr, 11, 249

Chaliapin, Feodor see Shalyapin, Fedr

Chalidze, Valeri, 382

Change of Landmarks (group), 128

Chazov, Yevgeni, 404

Chebrikov, Viktor, 438

Chechens, 114, 276–7, 288, 367, 545, 573

Chechnya: declares independence (1991), 421; war in, 533, 538, 546; and Putin 546, 547, 555, 566

Cheka (Extraordinary Commission): formed, 69, 74, 92, 227; in civil war, 103; repression and terror by, 107– 8, 110; appointments to, 148; see also OGPU

Chelyabinsk, 103, 364, 468, 518

Cherkessk (Stavropol region), 286, 296

Chernenko, Konstantin, 403–4, 426, 428, 433–5, 442

Chernobyl: nuclear power station accident, 445–6, 457, 469

Chernomyrdin, Viktor, 515–16, 522–3, 526, 529–31, 534, 537, 544

Chernov, Viktor, 19, 36–7, 51, 105

Chernyaev, Anatoli, 486

Chernyshevski, Nikolai, 17

Chiang Kai-shek, 162

Chicherin, Georgi, 158

Children of the Twentieth Congress, 356, 364, 450

Chile, 389, 399

China: Russian rail concession in, 3; 1924 treaty with USSR, 159; communists massacred, 162; acknowledges Soviet hegemony, 295; communist power in, 311; Treaty of Friendship with USSR, 311; resents Soviet friendship with USA, 354; Khrushchev criticizes ‘dogmatism’ in, 362; border skirmishes with USSR, 388; rapprochement with USA (1970s), 399–400; Albania supports, 409; Gorbachev’s overtures to, 465; Yeltsin’s relations with, 538

Chinese Communist Party: Politburo directs, 162

Chita province, 550

Chkalov, Valeri, 247

Christianity: divisions and sects, 10–11, 13; separation from state, 90; Bolshevik treatment of, 136, 318; see also Orthodox Church

Chronicle of Current Events, The (samizdatjournal), 382

Chubais, Anatoli, 512–15, 522, 525

Chubar, Vlas, 226

Chuikov, Vasili, 265

Churchill, (Sir) Winston S.: warns USSR of German invasion, 259; as war leader, 263; meetings with Stalin, 268–71, 273; and dissolution of Comintern, 270

CIS see Commonwealth of Independent States

Civil Code, 145

civil rights, 400, 412–13, 479

Civil War (1918–21), 101–2, 106, 112–13, 116–17, 123–4, 143

class (social): and employment, 7, 97; divisions, 9, 239; and rationing system, 87, 95; conflict, 92, 101, 179, 206, 454–5

clergy see priests and clerics

clientelism, 278, 323, 360, 392, 541

coal industry, 4, 78

Cold War, 294, 312–13, 336, 465

collective leadership, 332

collectivism, 89, 332

collectivization: Lenin on, 92; in Ukraine, 109; Stalin introduces, 170, 172, 202, 250; compulsory, 179–82, 234; peasant resistance to, 179, 183–4; supervision of, 186; and death rate, 201; and wartime food production, 276, 286; maintained under German occupation, 287; in Eastern Europe, 309, 311; Ovechkin writes on, 320; Danilov writes on, 381; under Brezhnev, 400–401

Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), 310

Cominform: established, 309; Yugoslavia expelled, 310; First Conference (1947), 311

Comintern (Communist International): 1936 German–Japanese Pact against, 230 ; dissolved (1943), 270; First Congress (1919), 112; Second Congress (1920), 120; Sixth Congress (1928), 178; Seventh Congress (1935), 229

commissars: appointed by Provisional Government, 40; in Red Army, 279

Committee of Party-State Control, 371, 379

committees of defence (World War II), 278

committees of village poor (kombedy), 109

Commonwealth of Independent States, 506, 518, 535

communes (village), 5–7, 16–17, 22, 38; and soviets, 73

Communist International see Comintern

Communist Party of the Russian Federation, 488–9, 520, 524, 526, 528, 530, 531, 536, 553

Communist Party of the Soviet Union: formed, 19, 71; Lenin leads, 19, 71–2; repressed under Nicholas II, 29; Lenin’s revolutionary aims for, 47–50, 82; and Provisional Government, 47; membership numbers and composition, 48, 110, 118, 140, 346, 410, 416; Central Committee, 50, 58–9, 69, 76–8, 91, 93, 101–2, 111, 118, 160, 176, 222, 224, 232, 326–7, 331, 377, 434, 452, 460, 462, 487; at 1917 Democratic Conference, 57; supports revolutionary action, 58–9; seizes power in October Revolution, 62, 66, 73; calls for new world order, 63–4; differences with Mensheviks, 63, 66; forms first revolutionary government, 66–7; reputation and local successes, 73; failure in Constituent Assembly election, 74; and 1917/18 peace negotiations, 75–8, 80; economic problems, 79; name, 80, 154, 325; popular attitude to and understanding of, 81–3, 96; revolutionary aims, 82–3, 91–2; and Russian peoples, 85; and working-class behaviour, 89; propaganda and promotion, 92–3, 140, 200, 418; intellectuals’ attitude to, 94–5; and administrators, 96–9, 110–11, 236–7, 240–43; authoritarianism, 98–100, 111, 129; and civil war, 101–3, 117; split with Mensheviks, 104; and murder of royal family, 107; Military Opposition, 112; and centralization, 115, 122; ‘cleansing’ (chistka), 118; political monopoly, 119, 123–4, 161, 239, 476, 485, 488;