inspiration. In contrast, we can confidently attribute Sumerian cuneiform and the earliest Mesoamerican writing to independent invention, because at the fj times of their first appearances there existed no other script in their respective hemispheres that could have inspired them. Still debatable are the origins of writing on Easter Island, in China, and in Egypt. The Polynesians living on Easter Island, in the Pacific Ocean, had unique script of which the earliest preserved examples date back only to,! about a.d. 1851, long after Europeans reached Easter in 1722. Perhaps writing arose independently on Easter before the arrival of Europeant although no examples have survived. But the most straightforward interpretation is to take the facts at face value, and to assume that Easfeip BLUEPRINTS AND BORROWEDletters • z 3 I A Korean sign illustrating the remarkable han'gul writing system. Each square block represents a syllable, but each component sign within theblock represents a letter. Islanders were stimulated to devise a script after seeing the written proclamation of annexation that a Spanish expedition handed to them in the year 1770. As for Chinese writing, first attested around 1300 b.c. but with possible earlier precursors, it too has unique local signs and some unique principles, and most scholars assume that it evolved independently. Writing had developed before 3000 b.c. in Sumer, 4,000 miles west of early Chinese urban centers, and appeared by 2200 b.c. in the Indus Valley, 2,600 miles west, but no early writing systems are known from the whole area between the Indus Valky and China. Thus, there is no evidence that the earliest Chinese scribes could have had knowledge of any other writing system to inspire them. Egyptian hieroglyphics, the most famous of all ancient writing systems, are also usually assumed to be the product of independent invention, but the alternative interpretation of idea diffusion is more feasible than in the Z 3 2. • GUNS, GERMS,and steel case of Chinese writing. Hieroglyphic writing appeared rather suddenly, in nearly full-blown form, around 3000 b.c. Egypt lay only 800 miles west of Sumer, with which Egypt had trade contacts. I find it suspicious that no evidence of a gradual development of hieroglyphs has come down to us, even though Egypt's dry climate would have been favorable for preserving earlier experiments in writing, and though the similarly dry climate of Sumer has yielded abundant evidence of the development of Sumerian cuneiform for at least several centuries before 3000 b.c. Equally suspicious is the appearance of several other, apparently independently designed, writing systems in Iran, Crete, and Turkey (so-called proto-Elamite writing, Cretan pictographs, and Hieroglyphic Hittite, respectively), after the rise of Sumerian and Egyptian writing. Although each of those systems used distinctive sets of signs not borrowed from Egypt or Sumer, the peoples involved could hardly have been unaware of the writing of their neighboring trade partners. An example of Chinese writing: a handscroll by W« Li, from a.d. 1679. It would be a remarkable coincidence if, after millions of years of human existence without writing, all those Mediterranean and Near Eastern societies had just happened to hit independently on the idea of writing within a few centuries of each other. Hence a possible interpretation seems to me idea diffusion, as in the case of Sequoyah's syllabary. That is, Egyptians and other peoples may have learned from Sumerians about the idea BLUEPRINTSAND BORROWED LETTERS • 2. 3 3 An example of Egyptian hieroglyphs: the funerary papyrus of PrincessEntiu-ny. of writing and possibly about some of the principles, and then devised other principles and all the specific forms of the letters for themselves. let us now return to the main question with which we began this chapter: why did writing arise in and spread to some societies, but not to many others? Convenient starting points for our discussion are the limited capabilities, uses, and users of early writing systems. Early scripts were incomplete, ambiguous, or complex, or all three. For Z 3 4 •GUNS,GERMS, AND STEEL example, the oldest Sumerian cuneiform writing could not render normal prose but was a mere telegraphic shorthand, whose vocabulary was restricted to names, numerals, units of measure, words for objects counted, and a few adjectives. That's as if a modern American court clerk were forced to write 'John 27 fat sheep,' because English writing lacked the necessary words and grammar to write 'We order John to deliver the 27 fat sheep that he owes to the government.' Later Sumerian cuneiform did become capable of rendering prose, but it did so by the messy system that I've already described, with mixtures of logograms, phonetic signs, and unpronounced determinatives totaling hundreds of separate signs. Linear B, the writing of Mycenaean Greece, was at least simpler, being based on a syllabary of about 90 signs plus logograms. Offsetting that virtue, Linear B was quite ambiguous. It omitted any consonant at the end of a word, and it used the same sign for several related consonants (for instance, one sign for both / and r, another for p and b and pb, and still another for g and k and kh). We know how confusing we find it when native-born Japanese people speak English without distinguishing / and r: imagine the confusion if our alphabet did the same while similarly homogenizing the other consonants that I mentioned! It's as if we were to spell the words 'rap,' 'lap,' 'lab,' and 'laugh' identically. A related limitation is that few people ever learned to write these early scripts. Knowledge of writing was confined to professional scribes in the employ of the king or temple. For instance, there is no hint that Linear B was used or understood by any Mycenaean Greek beyond small cadres of palace bureaucrats. Since individual Linear B scribes can be distinguished by their handwriting on preserved documents, we can say that all preserved Linear B documents from the palaces of Knossos and Pylos are the work of a mere 75 and 40 scribes, respectively. The uses of these telegraphic, clumsy, ambiguous early scripts were as restricted as the number of their users. Anyone hoping to discover how Sumerians of 3000 b.c. thought and felt is in for a disappointment. Instead, the first Sumerian texts are emotionless accounts of palace and temple bureaucrats. About 90 percent of the tablets in the earliest known Sumerian archives, from the city of Uruk, are clerical records of goods paid in, workers given rations, and agricultural products distributed. Only later, as Sumerians progressed beyond logograms to phonetic writing, did they begin to write prose narratives, such as
