233
For further details, see Williams 1896; Penrose 1951; Schiff 1971; McLeod 1988; Crafts 2000; and Sokoloff and Khan 2000.
234
The USA did not fully conform to the Berne Convention on international copyright (1886) until 1988, when the country finally abolished the requirement that copyrighted books had to be printed in the USA or typeset with US plates (Sokoloff and Khan 2000, p. 9).
235
See Landes 1969, p. 328. It is interesting to note that at the time the British were criticising Germany not only for using industrial espionage and the violation of trademark law but also for exporting goods made with convict labour (recall the recent US dispute with China on this account).
236
Kindleberger 1978, p. 216.
237
Williams 1896, p. 137.
238
Kindleberger 1978, p. 216.
239
Williams 1896, p. 138.
240
Kindleberger 1964, chapter 15, provides a classic discussion of this issue. Indeed, just about everything from patterns of coal deposits in the case of Western Europe (Pomeranz 2000) to varieties of Confucian culture in the case of Japan (Morishima, 1982) have been used to explain industrial success.
241
Little et al. 1970, pp. 162-9 and World Bank 1991, pp. 97-8, are the two notable exceptions.
242
Little et al. 1970, pp. 163-4.
243
World Bank 1991, p. 97, box 5.2. The twelve countries in question are Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the USA.
244
For an assessment of the additional constraints imposed by the WTO agreement on policy choice by developing country governments, see Akyuz et al. 1998; Amsden 2000; Chang and Cheema 2002.
245
Note that up to Second World War, virtually none of today’s developing countries had trade policy autonomy due to their colonial status or unequal treaties. So it is meaningless to discuss them at the same level as today’s developing countries. See section 2.3.2 for further details.
246
See Maddison 1995.
247
For example, per capita incomes measured in 1990 dollars in Japan and Finland in 1820 were $704 and $759 respectively, while those in the UK and the Netherlands were $1,756 and $1,561 – a ratio of less than 2.5 to 1. By 1913, the gap between Japan ($1,334) or Portugal ($1,354) and the UK ($5,032) or the USA ($5,505) increased to a ratio of around 4 to 1. For further details from Maddison’s historical income estimates, see table 3.7 in Chapter 3 of the present volume.
248
In purchasing power parity terms (in 1999 dollars), per capita income in the USA, Switzerland, and Japan were $31,910, $28,760, and $25,170 respectively, whereas those in Tanzania and Malawi were $500 and $570 respectively. In terms of current dollars, the gap is in the region of 100 or 400 to 1. In current dollars, 1999 per capita incomes were $38,380 in Switzerland, $32,030 in Japan, and’$31,910 in the USA, while they were $100 in Ethiopia, $180 in Malawi, and $260 in Tanzania.
249
Maddison 1995.
250
World Bank 1991; see also Maddison 1995..
251
See Maddison 1995; World Bank website.
Chapter 3. Institutions and Economic Development: ‘Good Governance’ in Historical Perspective
