211
Ramsay 1982, p. 66; Rinert 1995, p. 32 for Ireland; Garraty and Carnes 2000, pp. 77-8 for the USA.
212
Brisco 1907, p. 60.
213
Bairoch 1993, p. 89.
214
For further details, see Harnetty 1972, chapter 2.
215
Hobsbawm 1999, p. 129.
216
Bairoch 1993, pp. 41-2.
217
Little et al. 1970, pp. 163-4; World Bank 1991, p. 102.
218
Bairoch 1993, pp. 41-2; Gallagher and Robinson 1953, p. 11. The 1838 Convention of Balta Liman with Turkey bound Turkish import duties at three per cent (Fielden 1969, p. 91).
219
Johnson 1982, p. 25.
220
Bairoch 1993, p. 42. Eyiip Ozveren has pointed out to me that the 1923 granting of tariff autonomy to Turkey took effect only in 1929.
221
Amsden, 2001.
222
Kindleberger 1990b, p. 260.
223
See Jeremy 1977; Harris 1998, chapter 18, for further details.
224
Landes 1969, p. 148.
225
On the Tools Act and the ban on suborning, see Harris 1998, pp. 457-62; Jeremy 1977. On the loosening and abolition of the ban, see Kindleberger, p. 132; Landes 1969, p. 148. Berg 1980, chapter 9 provides an informative discussion of the political and academic debates surrounding the abolition of the ban on export of machinery.
226
Davids 1995; De Vries and Van der Woude 1997, pp. 348-9.
227
For example, in the 1750s, John Holker, a former Manchester textile finisher and Jacobite officer, was appointed as Inspector-General of Foreign Manufactures in the French government. While also advising French producers on technological problems, his main activity under this euphemistic job title consisted of industrial espionage and the suborning of British skilled workers (Harris 1998, p. 21).
228
See Landes 1969; Harris 1991; Bruland 1991.
229
Landes 1969.
230
On the issue of technological capabilities in developing countries, see Fransman and King 1984; Lall1992; Lall and Teubal 1998.
231
See Landes 1969, pp. 150-1, for further details.
232
On the controversy surrounding TRIPS, see Chang 2001a. Obviously, exactly what aspect of these laws is considered ‘deficient’ will depend on one’s view. For example, there are good arguments for and against the product patent in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries.
