Kicking Away the Ladder. Development Strategy in Historical Perspective

144

Liepman 1938, as cited by Bairoch 1993, p. 26, table 2.3. The original source is H Liepmann, Tariff Levels and the Economic Unity of Europe, London, 1938. The countries included are Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bulgaria, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK. Those excluded were Denmark, Norway, Portugal, and the Netherlands. Of these, Portugal and the Netherlands were far less protectionist than Sweden. Overall Denmark was less protectionist but had quite high industrial tariffs. Norway had high tariffs.

145

Baumol et al. 1990, p. 88, table 5.1. The 16 countries, in alphabetical order are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK, and the USA.

146

Chang and Kozul-Wright 1994, p. 871; Heckscher 1954, p. 259; Bohlin 1999, p. 158.

147

Samuelsson 1968, pp. 714,; Bohlin 1999, p. 153.

148

Chang and Kozul-Wright 1994, pp. 869-70; Bohlin 1999, pp. 153-5. However, in the telephone industry there erupted a ‘telephone war’ in the Stockholm area between 1903 and 1918 between the state-owned company, Telegrafverket, and the private company, Stockholm alimiina, which ended only when the former took the latter over (Bohlin 1999, p. 154).

149

Gustavson 1986, pp. 71-2; Chang and Kozul-Wright 1994, p. 870. For public-private collaboration in the East Asian economies, see the classic work by Evans (1995).

150

Chang and Kozul-Wright 1994, p. 870.

151

For pioneering works on ‘technological capabilities’, see Fransman and King 1984; Lall 1992.

152

See Korpi 1983; Pekkarinen et al. 1992; Pontusson 1992. However, Pontusson (1992) points out that the work of the Rationalisation Commission (1936-9) established some principles underlying the so-called ‘active labour market policy’ of the postwar years (pp. 46-7).

153

LO 1963, is the document that set out the strategy in detail.

154

Edquist and Lundvall 1993, p. 274.

155

Milward and Saul 1979, pp. 437, 441, 446; Hens and Solar 1999, p. 195.

156

Hens and Solar 1999, pp. 194, 197.

157

Dhondt and Bruwier 1973, pp. 350-1; Van der Wee 1996, p. 65.

158

Milward and Saul 1977, p. 174; Fielden 1969, p. 87.

159

Boxer 1965, chapter 10. Kindleberger estimates that the Netherlands’ economic strength had peaked by 1730 (1990b, p. 258).

160

Schmoller of the German Historical School provides a brief, but illuminating discussion of the Dutch policies used in order to establish its commercial supremacy - colonial policy, navigation policy, the regulation of the Levant trade and the regulation of the herring and whale fisheries (see Schmoller 1884, esp. pp: 52-3).

161

Kindleberger 1990b, p. 259; id. 1996, pp. 100-4; Milward and Saul 1977, p. 201.

162

List 1885, pp. 33-4; Wright 1955.

163

Dhondt and Bruwier 1973, p. 329, 355.

164

van Zanden 1996, pp. 84-5.