Baltics to Romania. On the 11,328 and 22,353 Polish citizens, see Hryciuk, “Victims,” 191, 193. See also Olaru- Cemirtan, “Zuge.”
79 On the bombing, see Jolluck, Exile, 16. Quotation: Gross, Children’s Eyes, 52.
80 Some 292,513 Polish citizens were deported in four waves, along with thousands more individually or in smaller actions. See Deportacje obywateli, 29; and Hryciuk, “Victims,” 175. Of the deportees, some 57.5 percent were counted by the Soviets as Poles, 21.9 percent as Jews, 10.4 percent as Ukrainians, and 7.6 percent as Belarusians; see Hryciuk, “Victims,” 195. For overall counts I rely on Hryciuk, “Victims,” 175; and Autuchiewicz, “Stan,” 23. See also Gurianov, “Obzor,” 205.
81 Czapski, Na nieludzkiej ziemi, 68.
82 King James Bible, Matthew 5:37; Koestler, Darkness at Noon, 249. Czapski’s meeting with Reikhman took place on 3 February 1942; see Crimes of Katyn, 90.
83 Czapski, Na nieludzkiej ziemi, 120, 141-143, 148.
84 Czapski, Na nieludzkiej ziemi, 149.
85 On Frank, see Longerich, Unwritten Order, 47. On the NKVD, see Kolakowski, NKWD, 74. On Hitler, see Mankowski, “Ausserordentliche,” 7. Compare Aly, Architects , 151.
CHAPTER 5: THE ECONOMICS OF APOCALYPSE
1 This is not an intellectual history, and I can permit myself only the briefest of remarks about these complex issues. As individuals, Hitler and Stalin embodied different forms of the early-nineteenth-century German response to the Enlightenment: Hitler the tragic romantic hero who must bear the burden of leading a flawed nation, Stalin the Hegelian world spirit that reveals reason in history and dictates it to others. A more complete comparison, as Christopher Clark has suggested, would account for Zeit der Ideologien.
2 This is a recasting of the argument developed in Chapters 1-3. For “Garden of Eden” (16 July 1941), see Mulligan, Illusion, 8.
3 Compare Goulder, “Internal Colonialism”; and Viola, “Selbstkolonisierung.”
4 Britain is more an external factor in this study than a subject of inquiry; but there is a case to be made for the importance of individuals in history here as well. See Lukacs, Hitler and Stalin; and Lukacs, Five Days in London. See also Isaiah Berlin’s essay “Winston Churchill in 1940” in Personal Impressions, 1-23.
5 See the Preface; also Streit, Keine Kameraden, 26-27. Oil was necessary for both industry and agriculture. Here, too, Germany was dependent upon imports, and true autarky seemed to require the conquest of the Soviet Caucasus and its oil fields.
6 Consult Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 409, 424, 429, 452. For the “most autarkic state in the world,” see Kennedy, Aufstieg, 341. On the oil reserves, see Eichholtz, Krieg um Ol, 8, 15, passim. Compare Hildebrand, Weltreich, 657-658. The German military was convinced that Soviet resources were needed to fight the war; see Kay, Exploitation, 27, 37, 40, and “immense riches” at 212.
7 On Germany’s naval capacity, see Weinberg, World at Arms, 118; also Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 397-399; and Evans, Third Reich at War, 143-146. Quotation: Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 133. Alan Milward long ago drew attention to the significance of the assumption of a rapid victory; see German Economy, 40-41.
8 On Generalplan Ost, see Madajczyk, “Generalplan,” 12-13, also 64-66; Aly, Architects , 258; Kay, Exploitation, 100-101, 216; Wasser, Himmlers Raumplannung, 51-52; Aly, Architects, 258; Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 466-467; Rutherford, Prelude, 217; Mazower, Hitler’s Empire, 206, 210; and Longerich, Himmler, 597-599.
9 On Himmler, see Longerich, Himmler, 599. On Hitler, see Kershaw, Hitler, 651. See also Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 469.
10 Hitler’s proclamation of 31 January 1941 is cited after Tooze, Wages of Destruction , 465. The final form of the Final Solution is the subject of the next chapter. Evans argues that Hitler needed to begin the war against the Soviet Union before the war Third Reich at War, 162.
11 Deutschosterreichische Tageszeitung, 3 March 1933; Kershaw, Fateful Choices, 267. On the percentage cited, see Kay, Exploitation, 56, 143.
12 Quotations: Kay, Exploitation, 211, 50, 40. See also Tooze, Wages of Destruction, 469; and Kershaw, Hitler, 650.
13 Quotation: Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde, 342. The institutional apparati are clarified in Kay, Exploitation, 17-18, 148.
14 Kay, Exploitation, 138, 162-163.
15 On the “extinction of… a great part of the population,” see Verbrechen der Wehrmacht, 65. The long quotation is in Kay, Exploitation, 133; see also Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde, 52-56. Given the settlement patterns of Soviet Jews, these “superfluous people” included not only Russians, Belarusians, Ukrainians, and Balts but at least three quarters of the Soviet Jewish population as well.
16 Kay, Exploitation, 164. In June, Hitler confirmed Goring’s overall responsibility for economic planning.
17 Hauner, Axis Strategy, 378-383.
18 Hitler’s capacity for improvisation makes it difficult to speak of strategy in the conventional sense. In my view the dispute between those who argue for a continental and a world strategy is most easily resolved thus: Hitler and his commanders agreed that a conquered Soviet Union was needed to pursue the war, whatever form it took. Hitler had in mind a war of continents and believed that it would come. Winning that world war required an earlier victory in the continental war.
19 On the neutrality pact, see Weinberg, World at Arms, 167-169; and Hasegawa, Racing, 13-14.
20 Burleigh, Third Reich, 484, 487.
21 On the Japanese wavering, see Weinberg, World at Arms, 253. On “for the time being,” see Hasegawa, Racing, 13. On the reaffirmation, see Krebs, “Japan,” 554. On the oft-forgotten Italian role, see Schlemmer, Italianer.
22 Quotations: Romer, Kommissarbefehl, 204. Regarding Hitler’s quotation, see Kershaw, Hitler, 566. See also Pohl, Herrschaft, 64; and Bartov, Hitler’s Army, 16.
23 On the use of civilians as human shields, see the order of 13 May 1941, text in Verbrechen der Wehrmacht, 46. See also Bartov, Hitler’s Army, 71; Pohl, Herrschaft, 71, and discussion of women in uniform at 205; Romer, Kommissarbefehl, 228, also 551; and Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde, 774.
24 Gerlach, Kalkulierte Morde, 244, 266; Bartov, Eastern Front, 132.
25 Verbrechen der Wehrmacht, 344; Pohl, Herrschaft,
