The Penguin History of Modern Russia

Dublin, 530

Dudaev, Dzhokar, 521, 533

Dudintsev, Vladimir: By Bread Alone, 344

Dudko, Dmitri, 382, 476

Duma: formed and assembled, 1, 14–16; Nicholas II’s attitude to, 21–2, 29, 32; supports World War I, 27; and Nicholas II’s abdication, 33; impotence, 548; under 1998 constitution, 529, 550, 551, 553, 566

Dunkirk evacuation (1940), 258

Durnovo, Petr, 25

Dvinsk, 77

Dzhugashvili, Katerina (Stalin’s mother), 196

Dzhugashvili, Yakov (Stalin’s son), 285

Dzierzynski, Felix: supports plan to seize power, 61; heads Cheka, 74, 108; Polish origins, 85; taken hostage by Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, 103–4; advocates terror, 107–8; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; interrogates Berdyaev, 137; disagreements with Lenin, 153

Dziuba, Ivan: Internationalism or Russification?, 391

East Berlin: Gorbachev visits, 463

East Germany see German Democratic Republic

Eastern Europe: communist movements in, 302, 305; post-World War II policy on, 303, 305–12; Soviet purges in, 313; resents Soviet subjugation, 330, 553; and Warsaw Pact, 337; Soviet unpopularity in, 342, 353; easing of Soviet policy under Beria, 343; economic reforms, 385–6; Politburo and, 385–7; compliance demanded, 387; anti-Soviet developments, 409; and Gorbachev’s non-interference policy, 442–3, 463–4, 481–3; communist collapse in, 483–4

economy after communism: real average income drops 529; financial collapse (1998), 530, 535; subsidies 534; devaluation (1998), 535; recovery (1999), 535–6; poverty, 541

education: encouraged by Bolsheviks, 140–42, 190–91, 205; privileged, 237, 320–21; and non-Russian languages, 367; discrimination abolished, 410; after communism, 567

Egypt, 352, 389

eight-hour day, 68

Eikhe, R.I., 213

Einstein, Albert, 318

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 272, 353

Eisenstein, Sergei, 249, 319

Eismont, Nikolai, 188

elections: to Constituent Assembly, 74, 81; Gorbachev’s reforms on, 451, 460–61; to Congress of People’s Deputies (1989), 472–3, 475; under Yeltsin (1993), 523, 526–9; State Duma (1995), 530; Presidential (1996), 531; State Duma (1999), 552–3; Presidential (2000), 547; State Duma (2003), 552–3; Presidential (2004), 553; State Duma (2007), 559; Presidential (2008), 559

Emancipation Edict (1861), 6–7, 71

emigration: post-revolution, 88

Engels, Friedrich, 92–3, 136

engineers: courted by Bolsheviks, 95; success under NEP, 163; 1928 trial of, 175; protected, 194

environment: and pollution, 468, 518, 552

Epshtein, Avraam, 208

Erenburg, Ilya: The Thaw, 335

Erevan, 390

Estonia: demands autonomy, 40; support for Bolsheviks, 83; Germany acquires (1918), 84; Soviet republic established (1918), 107; granted independence, 128; awarded to USSR in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256–7; annexed by USSR, 258, 306, 398; Germans occupy (1941), 261; post-World War II settlement, 270, 306; SS units from, 287; post-World War II deportations, 300; culture downgraded, 316; and Khrushchev’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; nationalism, 366, 456, 478; living standard, 423; protest demonstrations, 457, 473–4, 481; claims veto rights over Moscow laws, 473; independence demands, 482, 503; Yeltsin reassures, 489; declares sovereignty, 490; resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; after communism, 537

Estonian National Front, 382

Ethiopia, 399

Europe: revolutions in, 120; post-World War II situation, 301–2, 305–8

European Union, 537, 538

exile (internal), 21–2

exports, 159

Extraordinary Commission see Cheka

factory workers see workers

Fadeev, Alexander, 319

Fall of Berlin, The (film), 315

family values, 246

famine: Volga region (1891–2), 5; and forcible acquisition of grain, 93; in Ukraine (1932–3), 184, 202, 207; in World War II, 285; post-World War II, 304; see also food supply

Fantomas (film series), 357

Far East: security in, 255–7, 308

farms, private, 542; see also Land Code

fascism: in Italy, 140, 170; popular fronts against, 230; and totalitarianism, 235; in Spain, 254

Fatherland (party), 547

February Revolution see revolution of February 1917

Federal Assembly, 527, 551, 558

Federal Security Service, 530, 545, 550

Federal Treaty (1992), 521

Federation Council see Council of the Federation

Federation of Independent Trade Unions, 542

Fedorov, Boris, 522

Finland: status under empire, 13; demands autonomy, 40; Sejm disobeys Provisional Government, 60; granted independence, 69, 128; awarded to USSR in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256; winter war (1939–40), 257; joins EU, 537

First World War see World War I

500 Days Plan (1990), 492–3

Five-Year Plans: First (1928–32), 170, 176–9, 186, 188, 190, 198–9, 205, 208; Second (1933–38), 194, 208, 211; Fourth (1946–50), 303; Eighth (1966–70), 385, 406; Ninth (1971–6), 407; Twelfth (1968–92), 441

food supply: after 1917, 89–90; and malnutrition, 119; and intimidation, 208; 1930s improvements in, 249; and control of population, 278; to armed forces in World War II, 284–5; post-war inadequacy, 304; price rises under Khrushchev, 364; imported, 467, 470; shortages under Gorbachev, 472; and price rises under Gorbachev, 492, 495; price controls lifted, 525; see also harvests; rationing

Food-Supplies Dictatorship, 104, 108–9

football, 559

forced-labour and camps see Gulag

Ford, Gerald, 399

Ford motor company, 177

Foros (Black Sea), 496, 498, 502

France: in Russo-British entente, 3; Imperial Russian disputes with, 24; in World War I, 25, 34, 78; intervenes in civil war, 102; loans to Russia, 158; diplomatic relations with USSR, 229; 1939 declaration of war,