256–7; 1940 defeat, 258; communist party follows Moscow line, 295, 306, 311; and conference on Cominform, 308; resists reparation demands on Germany, 308; in Suez war (1956), 343
Franco, General Francisco, 230
Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, 25
Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria, 1
Free Trade Union Association, 414
fraud, IMF funds, 534
frivolity, 235, 477
Gagarin, Yuri, 351
Gaidar, Yegor, 505, 509–11, 512–14, 516, 521–3, 526–7, 529, 534
Gamsakhurdia, Zviad, 412
Gapon, Fr Georgi, 13, 204
gas, 536, 553, 562
gas industry, 525, 536, 553, 562
Gazprom, 526
Gdansk shipyards, 409
Geneva: 1955 conference, 353; Gorbachev–Reagan meeting in (1985), 444, 463
Genghis Khan, 226
Genoa Conference (1922), 158
genocide, 202;
gentry: land ownership and seizure, 15–16, 20, 34, 39, 53, 55–6, 67–8, 86, 91;
Georgia: 1906 unrest, 13; and Provisional Government collapse, 60; as independent state, 83; Mensheviks in, 83; conflict with Armenia, 113; Soviet republic formed, 114, 207; reconquered (1921), 128; status, 129, 133; 1924 insurrection, 131; repressed, 201; riots over Khrushchev’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; repressed under Khrushchev, 369; living standard, 423; minorities in, 424; protest demonstrations (1989), 473–4; independence demands, 481; violence against Abkhazians, 481; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; relations with Russia after 1991, 535, 555, 560
Gerashchenko, Viktor, 516
German Communist Party, 107, 126, 158, 171, 178, 187
German Democratic Republic (East Germany): established, 311; emigration to West, 374; recognized by West Germany, 389; Gorbachev on, 463; citizens seek asylum in Austria, 483
German Federal Republic (West Germany), 337, 389
German Social Democratic Party: advocates central planning, 63; opposes communist ‘March Action’ in (1921), 126, 158–9; propaganda, 140; Comintern declares enmity for, 178; communists campaign against, 187
Germany: as threat to Imperial Russia, 1; trade with Russia, 3; imperial Russian rivalry with, 24–5; naval power, 25; and outbreak of World War I, 26–7, 34, 53; returns Lenin to Russia, 47; in World War I, 49, 107; and 1917/18 peace agreement with Russia, 75–8, 80; and October Revolution, 75; unrest in, 81; 1918 territorial acquisitions, 84; and civil war in Russia, 102; Spartakist rising (1919), 112; 1918 defeat, 117; Soviet negotiations and agreement with, 158–9; rise of Nazism, 171; Stalin’s estimate of, 187; nationalism, 206; signs Anti-Comintern Pact, 230; and outbreak of World War II, 255–7; imports Soviet strategic materials, 259; invades and campaigns in USSR (1941), 260–67; defence of homeland, 270–71; World War II atrocities, 283, 286, 288–9; occupation regime, 286–90, 295–6; Soviet collaborators with, 287; industrial plant transferred to USSR, 307; partition, 308; economic recovery, 322
Gestapo, 223, 286
Ghana, 389
Gierek, Eduard, 386
Gil, Stepan, 107
glasnost, 448–9, 452, 459–60, 464, 466
Glavlit (Main Administration for Affairs of Literature and Publishing Houses), 137, 324, 366, 448
Goethe, J.W. von, 85
gold, 4, 159, 177
Gomulka, Wladislaw, 231, 311, 342–3, 386
Gorbachev, Mikhail: abolishes Glavlit, 137; Marxist-Leninism, 370; reform programme, 397, 438–44, 446, 448–52, 454–5, 459–62, 466, 468, 479, 485, 490, 494; experiments with ‘links’ system, 402; background and career, 404–5, 435–7, 456; Andropov employs, 430–31, 433, 437; status and influence, 434; appointed General Secretary, 435, 438; formulation of ideas, 437–8, 443, 451, 454–5; visits abroad, 437, 440, 463; political appointments, 438–9, 456; character and style, 439–40; foreign policy and international relations, 442–5, 451, 455, 463–5; and defence commitments, 443–4; negotiates with Reagan, 444, 463; and Chernobyl disaster, 445–6; and collapse of USSR, 447, 507; and public debate (glasnost), 448–9; relations with Yeltsin, 453, 503, 512; speech on 70th anniversary of October revolution, 453–4; foreign policy, 455, 463–5; and nationalities question, 455–7; at 19th Party Conference, 461–2; replaces Gromyko as Chairman of Supreme Soviet, 463; arms reduction, 465–6; popularity in West, 465–6, 496; innocence, 466; mismanagement, 468; and Armenian earthquake, 469; and economic crisis, 470–71, 491–3, 495; accepts 1989 election results, 473; resistance and opposition to reforms, 473–6, 480–81, 485, 488, 493–5; chairs Congress of People’s Deputies, 474–5; popularity in USSR, 477, 479; and independence movements in republics, 481; and collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, 483–4; contradictions in policy, 485–6; remains in Party, 486–7, 491; proposes socialist liberation, 487; at 18th Party Congress, 490–91; attempted coup against (1991), 491, 496–500, 502, 530; loses popularity, 491, 495–6, 499–500; maintains unity of USSR, 494; works with Yeltsin, 494; resignation, 495, 505, 507;
Gorbacheva, Raisa, 436, 438, 453, 455–6, 469, 486, 498, 502
Gordov, General Vasili N., 299
Gorki (city), 412, 414
Gorki, Maksim, 137, 191, 206, 248
Gosagroprom
Gosizdat (state publisher), 138
Gosplan
Gottwald, Clement, 307
Grachev, Pavel, 500, 524, 533
grain: pre-World War I production, 5; World War I regulation of trade, 31, 52, 79–80; production, 78–9, 124; state procurement of, 104, 109, 118, 164, 170, 172–4, 182–3, 194, 305; distribution, 108–9; hoarding by peasants, 109–10; and tax in kind, 124–5; fall in world prices, 147, 159, 177; marketing by peasants, 147; exports under NEP, 155; exports under First Five-Year Plan, 177; quotas, 184; post-World War II production, 328; production under Khrushchev, 350; production under Brezhnev, 401; purchased abroad, 401; price controls lifted (1993), 525;
Great Depression (1929), 170, 177
Great Terror (1937–8)
Great War (1914–18)
Grebenshchikov, Boris, 543
Greece, 271, 306
Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church, 369
Grigoryants, Sergei, 480
Grishin, Viktor, 428, 434–5, 442
Groman, Vladimir, 145
Gromov, General Boris, 497
Gromyko, Andrei, 354, 404, 426, 428, 435, 438, 462–3
Grossman, Vasili, 289;
