The Penguin History of Modern Russia

siege of Moscow White House, 501; Presidency of Georgia, 512

Shevchenko, Taras, 203, 368

Shkiryatov, M.F., 213

Shklovski, Viktor, 248

Shlyapnikov, Alexander, 118, 161

‘shock therapy’, 534

Shokhin, Alexander, 512

Sholokhov, Mikhail, 201

Short Course see Knorin, V.G. and others

Shostakovich, Dmitri, 249, 281, 319, 573

show trials: of Socialist-Revolutionaries (1922), 128; of Shakhty engineers (1928), 175; of ‘Industrial Party’ (1930), 185; of supposed nationalist opponents, 200

Shushkevich, Stanislav, 506

Sikhinova, Xenia (Miss World 2008), 559

Silaev, Ivan, 495, 500

Simonov, Konstantin, 284

Singing Together (pop duo), 558

Sinyavski, Andrei, 381, 390

Skobelev, Mikhail, 36–7

Skokov, Yuri, 512

Skoropadskyi, Hetman Pavlo, 84

Skrypnik, Mykola, 200

Slensky, Rudolf, 311

slave labour see Gulag

Slavs, 283

Slivyak, Vladimir, 556

Slovaks, 103

Slutski, Boris, 191

Smirnov, A.P., 188

Smolensk, 136, 146, 261

Sobchak, Anatoli, 548

social acquiescence see acquiescence, social

social sciences, 419

Social Democratic Party (Germany) see German Social Democratic Party

Social-Democrats of Russian Empire see Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party

‘Socialism in One Country’, 156, 159, 177

Socialist Revolutionaries, Party of, 14–15, 19–20, 29, 35, 45–6, 48–9, 51–3, 58–9; anti-capitalism, 62–3; and October Revolution, 65–6; non-cooperation with Lenin’s 1917 government, 67; and land redistribution, 68; and Constituent Assembly election, 74, 81; excluded from Sovnarkom, 74; repressed by Bolsheviks, 93; flee to Samara, 101; Kolchak’s coup against, 106; excluded from soviets, 107; purged, 128, 185; denounced, 134; excluded from politics, 161; and opposition to Bolshevik Party, 188

socialists: co-operate with Provisional Government, 46; seek end to World War I, 51–2; demand radical change, 63; and Lenin’s ideas, 63–4, 529; anti-communist, 82

social welfare, 305, 406, 534, 558

Sokolnikov, Grigori, 78, 102

Sokurov, Alexander, 543

soldiers see armed forces; Soviet Army

Solidarity movement (Poland), 411

Soloukhin, Vladimir, 415; Reading Lenin, 478

Soloviev, Yuri, 473

Solovki island (White Sea), 478

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 224, 298, 366, 412–14, 476, 511; Cancer Ward, 381; The First Circle, 381; The Gulag Archipelago, 478; One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, 365; after 1991, 544

Sorge, Richard, 259

South Korean airliner KAL-007, 432

South Osetiya, 560

Sovetskaya Rossiya (newspaper), 458, 497

Soviet Army (formerly Red Army): rise to power, 85; formed, 101; in civil war, 103–4, 106, 110, 113, 116–17; Trotski organizes, 105–6; supplies, 109–10; officers, 112, 279; atrocities, 116; indiscipline, 119; invades Poland, 120–21, 126, 141; unrest in, 122; restores imperial boundaries, 128; used against peasants, 146; appointments to, 148; capital support for, 186; leaders purged, 220, 223, 225, 231, 236; rivalry with state organs, 233; nomenklatura in, 236; clashes with Japanese, 255; in Finnish winter war (1939–40), 257; and threat of German invasion, 259; campaigns in World War II, 261–9, 278; and defeat of Germany, 272; and war against Japan, 272–3; political commissars in, 279; rations, 279; political indoctrination in, 280–81; nationalities in, 283; World War II service in, 285–6; deserters and German collaborators, 287–8; experience of West, 297, 324; in Eastern Europe, 309, 481–2, 484; renamed, 323; Khrushchev’s policy on, 346; Khrushchev reduces, 372; power, 398; withdrawal from Afghanistan, 443; Gorbachev reduces, 466; discontent with Gorbachev regime, 480; quells unrest in Transcaucasia, 482; and unemployment, 518; see also Russian Army

Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies, St Petersburg, 14, 35–6, 47

soviets: support Bolsheviks, 58; as alternative government, 60; and October Revolution, 62, 474; power under October Revolution, 69; size, 73; working-class apathy on, 83

sovkhozes (collective farms), 183, 224, 243, 350, 440, 470; see also collectivization

sovnarkhozy see regional economic councils

Sovnarkom see Council of People’s Commissars

Soyuz: formed (1990), 492–3, 497

Spain: economic improvement, 398

Spanish Civil War, 154, 230

Spanish Communist Party, 398

Spartacus, 93

Spartakists (Germany), 112

Special Transcaucasian Committee, 60

spies: anxiety over, 249–50

Spitak (Armenia): 1988 earthquake, 468

sport, 140, 191, 247, 357, 420–21; see also leisure and recreation

sputniks, 351

SS-20 missiles, 400

Stakhanov, Aleksei (and Stakhanovism), 217, 244

Stalin, Iosif: favours co-operation with Mensheviks, 47; supports Lenin’s plan to seize power, 61; aims to retain old empire, 69; relations with Lenin, 72, 151, 153, 196–7; and 1918 peace agreement, 77; aims for unitary state, 83; Georgian origins, 85, 195–6, 201, 315; antipathy to Trotski, 112; in Politburo, 112; federalism and republics, 114, 129–30, 132; and Georgian nationalism, 133; cultivates common touch, 142; opposes Trotski at 11th Party Congress, 151; as Party General Secretary, 151, 157; Lenin criticizes, 152, 174, 227, 339; and Lenin’s death, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5, 157, 197; attacks Trotski, 156; on ‘socialism in One Country’, 156, 159, 177; manner and methods, 157, 175, 315; defeats United Opposition, 160, 162, 164; discontinues NEP, 164, 172, 187, 190, 275; opposes higher agricultural prices, 164; hardens policies, 169, 171–6, 195; orders grain collection, 170, 172, 174; introduces first Five-Year Plan, 171–8, 182, 188, 190, 198–9; and industrial development, 175–6, 194,