42. MSP, f. 3, op. 14, d. 2, ll. 25–6; d. 3, ll. 12–18, 125.
43. MP, f. 4, op. 18, d. 2; d. 5, ll. 16– 17.
44. MP, f. 4, op. 5, d. 2, ll. 37, 38.
45. Politbiuro i krest’ianstvo, pp. 467–553; Viola, The Unknown Gulag, p. 232.
46. MP, f. 4, op. 9, d. 5, ll. 2– 7.
47. AMILO, M. A. Solomonik, ‘Zapiski raskulachennoi’, ts., pp. 7–34.
48. Pravda, 7 November 1929.
49. AFA, A. M. Alekseyev, ‘Vospominaniia’, p. 18.
50. See e.g. GARF, f. 9414, op. 1, d. 368, l. 115. See also the revealing hindsight comments by Aleksei Loginov, the director of the Gulag mining complex in Norilsk from 1954 to 1957, in A. Macqueen, ‘Survivors’, Granta, 64 (Winter 1998), p. 45.
51. For a classic political interpretation of the Gulag system see R. Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment (London, 1992), and same author, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (New York, 1978). The economic dimension has been emphasized by M. Jakobson, Origins of the Gulag: The Soviet Prison Camp System, 1917–1934 (Lexington, 1993); G. Ivanova, Gulag v sisteme totalitarnogo gosudarstva (Moscow, 1997); and by several scholars in P. Gregory and V. Lazarev (eds.), The Economics of Forced Labor: The Soviet Gulag (Stanford, 2003). For a scholarly account of the Gulag’s early years that combines both these views see O. Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror (New Haven, 2004).
52. Sistema ispravitel’no- trudovykh lagerei v SSSR, 1923–1960. Spravochnik (Moscow, 1998), p. 395; Applebaum, Gulag, pp. 31–40.
53. GARF, f. 5446, op. 11 a, d. 555, l. 32; RGASPI, f. 17, op. 3, d. 746, l. 11; Sistema ispravitel’no-trudovykh lagerei v SSSR, p. 38.
54. GARF, f. 9414, op. 1, d. 2920, l. 178; Applebaum, Gulag, pp. 62–5; C. Joyce, ‘The Gulag in Karelia, 1929–41’, in Gregory and Lazarev (eds.), The Economics of Forced Labor, p. 166; N. Baron, ‘Conflict and Complicity: The Expansion of the Karelian Gulag, 1923–33’, Cahiers du Monde Russe, vol. 42, nos. 2–4 (2001), p. 643; A. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago 1918–1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation, 3 vols. (London, 1974–8), vol. 2, p. 99.
55. MSP, f. 3, op. 19, d. 2, ll. 1– 4.
56. GARF, f. 5515, op. 33, d. 11, ll. 39– 40; GASO, f. 148, op. 5, d. 26, l. 75.
57. GARF, f. 9414, op. 1, d. 3048, ll. 25–36; V. Shalamov, Vishera: antiroman (Moscow, 1989), p. 23.
58. D. Nordlander, ‘Magadan and the Economic History of the Dalstroi in the 1930s’, in Gregory and Lazarev (eds.), The Economics of Forced Labor, p. 110.
59. V. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales (London, 1994), pp. 368–9. Shalamov arrived at Kolyma in 1937, so much of what he writes about the Berzin period is based on camp legend.
60. MP, f. 4, op. 10, d. 1, ll. 1–4, 14–17.
61. A. Barmine, One Who Survived: The Life Story of a Russian Under the Soviets (New York, 1945), p. 196.
62. C. Ward, Stalin’s Russia (London, 1999), p. 56; A. Smith, I Was a Soviet Worker (London, 1937), p. 43.
63. Interviews with Lydia Pukhova, St Petersburg, May, October 2004.
64. MSP, f. 3, op. 14, d. 2, ll. 23–4, 26, 29; d. 3, ll. 20, 63–70.
65. Y. Druzhnikov, Informer 001: The Myth of Pavlik Morozov (London, 1997), pp. 45–6, 155–6; C. Kelly, Comrade Pavlik: The Rise and Fall of a Soviet Boy Hero (London, 2005), 2. p. 66.
66. Druzhnikov, Informer, pp. 19–20, 30–31, 42, 114, 152; Kelly, Comrade, pp. 13, 94. Kelly (who has seen the secret police file) doubts that there was a trial of Morozov. In her view, Pavlik’s denunciation was fabricated by the police and the press (pp. 251–8).
67. Kelly, Comrade, pp. 26–72.
68. Druzhnikov, Informer, pp. 9–11; Kelly, Comrade, p. 14.
69. Kelly, Comrade, p. 156 (translation slightly altered for clarity).
70. See ibid., pp. 22, 26–9, 169– 71.
71. M. Nikolaev, Detdom (New York, 1985), p. 89.
72. V. Danilov, Sovetskaia dokolkhoznaia derevnia: naselenie, zemlepol’zovanie, khoziaistvo (Moscow, 1977), p. 25; P. Kenez, The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917–1929 (Cambridge, 1985), p. 186; Ocherki byta derevenskoi molodezhi (Moscow, 1924), pp. 10–12.
73. Interviews with Nina Gribelnaia, St Petersburg, March, June, October 2004; AFSBTO, Arkhivno-sledstvennoe delo F. Z. Medvedeva.
74. Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow, p. 295; Fitzpatrick, Stalin’s Peasants, p. 256.
75. Vskhody kommuny, 19 December 1932; K. Geiger, The Family in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), p. 308 (translation slightly altered for clarity).
76. A. Mar’ian, Gody moi, kak soldaty: dnevnik sel’skogo aktivista, 1925–53 (Kishinev, 1987), pp. 55, 71, 78–9.
77. Cited in Geiger, The Family in Soviet Russia, p. 140.
78. A. Shternshis, Soviet and Kosher: Jewish Popular Culture, 1923–1939 (Bloomington, 2006), p. 61. My thanks to Anna
